Uterine torsion is usually detected at examination for dystocia. The Brown Swiss breed appear to be predisposed, as are alpine cattle. It is suggested that 20-30% of dystocias are because of torsion.
60-70% of cases have an anticlockwise rotation. Most cows are treated by rolling and subsequently calve with assistance. Caesarian section is required for those that cannot be corrected.
In a study of 550 cases seen in practice, Mock et al (2015) reported that 96% were anticlockwise torsions. 37% required assistance in calving after correction. 10% had fertility problems after correction of torsion. The incidence was 3-3.6%.
Mock T, Hehenberger E, Steiner A, Hüsler J, Hirsbrunner G. Uterine torsion in Brown Swiss cattle: retrospective analysis from an alpine practice in Switzerland. Vet Rec. 2015 Aug 8;177(6):152.
The most important period for inflammatory disease of the bovine uterus is the postpartum period. Approximately 20 to 40% of dairy cattle develop postpartum uterine disease within a week of calving.
It is estimated that about 30% of dairy cows suffer from subclinical endometritis and about 20% have clinical endometritis. The range of reported prevalence is 3 to over 40%! The problem is defining endometritis.Those cows that develop postpartum endometritis subsequently are more prone to developing endometritis. Clinical endometritis is defined as the presence of purulent uterine discharge in the vagina 21 days or more after parturition, or mucopurulent discharge after 26 days postpartum. This definition is altered based on the testing method - from clinical observation to soffisticated testing.
Subclinical endometritis is even more difficult to define because there is a continuum of the amount of inflammation in the uterus and the exact point at which this is regarded as "abnormal" becomes a matter of opinion. One of the measures commonly used is the proportion of neutrophils in a sample collected by cytobrush or from the presence of uterine fluid on ultrasound.
In general, neutrophils (often incorrectly called PMNs) in the lumen indicates active chemotaxis and thus active 'inflammation' whereas lymphocytes and plasma cells in the stroma of the endometrium indicates an active immune response that is regarded as 'chronic' inflammation.
The cause of postpartum endometritis, which is particularly a disease of dairy cows, is related to physiological imbalances connected to lactation as the prevalence of this disease is greater in high yielding animals.
Jose-Cunilleras et al (2025) found that cows with lower concentrations of ionized calcium and magnesium before parturition are more likely to develop metritis.
Andrade JS, Moreira EM, de Souza VL, et al. Exploring uterine inflammation in postpartum primiparous precocious and conventional and multiparous Bos indicus beef cows. Reprod Domest Anim. 2023;10.1111
Gilbert RO. Bovine endometritis: the burden of proof. Cornell Vet 1992; 82: 11-14
Jose-Cunilleras E, Robles-Guirado JA, Ríos J, Elcoso G, Bach A, Bassols A. Serum Ionised Calcium and Ionised Magnesium in Dairy Cows and Their Associations With the Incidence and Severity of Postpartum Metritis. Reprod Domest Anim. 2025; 60: e70057
LeBlanc SJ (2012) Interactions of metabolism, inflammation, and reproductive tract health in the postpartum period in dairy cattle. Reprod Domest Anim. 2012; 47 Suppl 5: 18-30.
Pascottini OB, Hostens M, Dini P, Vandepitte J, Ducatelle R, Opsomer G. Distribution of inflammation and association between active and chronic alterations within the endometrium of dairy cows. Reprod Dom Anim 2016; 51: 751–757.
Pascottini OB, LeBlanc SJ, Gnemi G, Leroy JLMR, and Opsomer G. Genesis of clinical and subclinical endometritis in dairy cows. Reproduction 2023; 166: R15–R24
Sheldon IM, Price SB, Cronin J, Gilbert RO, Gadsby JE. (2009) Mechanisms of infertility associated with clinical and subclinical endometritis in high producing dairy cattle. Reprod Domest Anim. 2009; 44 Suppl 3: 1-9.
Sheldon IM, Cronin JG, Healey GD, Gabler C, Heuwieser W, Streyl D, Bromfield JJ, Miyamoto A, Fergani C, Dobson H. (2014) Innate immunity and inflammation of the bovine female reproductive tract in health and disease. Reproduction. 2014 Sep;148(3):R41-51.
Williams EJ. (2013) Drivers of post-partum uterine disease in dairy cattle. Reprod Domest Anim 2013; 48 Suppl 1: 53-58.
Endometrial biopsy has been performed in cattle for decades. Some of the first reports were in the 1950s. The normal sequence of changes in the postpartum uterus was published by Archbald et al (1972). In summary, for the first 11 days, residual cells of the chorioallantois were visible in the caruncular crypts. They were necrotic and mineralised. Degenerative changes to the vessels of the caruncles occurs until day 19. Fibrinoid necrosis and pyknosis and swelling of the smooth muscle cells was seen. The surface of the caruncle sloughed by about day 6 or 7 and by day 15 was at the same level as the intercaruncular area. Complete reepithelialisation occurred by day 30. In the intercaruncular region, single dead epithelial cells and regeneration occured until day 15. There was a complete covering of this area with epithelium from day 1. The endometrial glands had single dead cells all though, just as with the luminal epithelium.
There are observational studies of the biopsies of endometrium of cows. Sagartz and Hardenbrook (1971) categorised the findings of infertile cows as no lesions, mild, moderate and severe endometritis based on the number of "leukocytes in the lamina propria or glandular crypts".
One of the first studies to correlate endometrial biopsy with clinical outcome was by Bonnett et al (1991). Observations of cows at day 26 and 40 postpartum were done (Bonnett et al 1990) Almost all cows had histological changes postpartum with lymphocytes and plasma cells being numerous in the stratum compactum of the endometrium. Bonnett et al (1991b) correlated histological findings with bacterial culture and
Biopsy changes with treatment
All kinds of solutions are injected into the uterus of cattle.
Povidone-iodine causes uterine inflammation and loss of the epithelium. Despite this it appears to improve conception.
Archbald LF, Schultz RH, Fahning ML, Kurtz HJ, Zemjanis R. A sequential histological study of the post-partum bovine uterus. J Reprod Fertil 1972; 29: 133-136.
Bonnett BN, Miller RB, Etherington WG, Martin SW, Johnson WH. Endometrial Biopsy in Holstein-Friesian Dairy Cows I. Technique, Histological Criteria and Results. Can J Vet Research 1990; 55:155-161
Bonnett BN, Miller RB, Martin SW, Etherington WG, Buckrell BC. Endometrial biopsy in Holstein-Friesian dairy cows. II. Correlations between histological criteria. Can J Vet Res. 1991 Apr;55(2):162-7.
Bonnett BN, Martin SW, Gannon VPJ, Miller RB, Etherington WG. Endometrial Biopsy in Holstein-Friesian Dairy Cows III. Bacteriological Analysis and Correlations with Histological Findings. Can J Vet Research 1991; 55: 168-173.
Yoshida R, Kitahara G, Osawa T. Intrauterine infusion of povidone-iodine: Its effect on the endometrium and subsequent fertility in postpartum dairy cows. J Vet Med Sci. 2020; 82: 926-934.
The bacteria commonly found are Escherichia coli, Trueperella pyogenes, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Prevotella species.
It is normal for bacteria to contaminate the uterus after parturition. They are normally cleared by innate immune mechanisms.
Sagartz and Hardenbrook (1971) found staphylococci, corynebacteria (including C pyogenes, now Trueperella pyogenes) and gram negative rods in their study of infertile cow uteri.
Wagener et al (2014) found that Trueperella pyogenes was the most common isolate from post partum uteri and that infection was hightly correlated with clinical endometritis. Streptococcus uberis preceded T pyogenes infection and was highly correlated with subsequent T pyogenes infection.
Aghamiri et al (2014) developed a multiplex PCR to identify bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Trueperella pyogenes, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Prevotella melaninogenicus. T pyogenes appeared to be particularly important in endometritis.
Ludbey reported on the bacteria recovered 48 cows with purulent vaginal discharge, presumably from endometritis, in dairy cows in Western Australia. They found 118 isolates and these were the bacteria: Bacillus (60.2%), Streptococcus (12.7%), Trueperella (10.1%), Escherichia (6.7%) and Staphylococcus (5.9%). Less than 5% were Histophilus, Aeroccocus, Enterococcus and Moraxella.
Aghamiri SM, Haghkhah M, Ahmadi MR, Gheisari MR. Development of a multiplex PCR for the identification of major pathogenic bacteria of post-partum endometritis in dairy cows. The Vet J 2014; 202: 527-532.Ludbey PA, Sahibzada S, Annandale CH, Robertson ID, Waichigo FK, Tufail MS, Valenzuela JL, Aleri JW. A pilot study on bacterial isolates associated with purulent vaginal discharge in dairy cows in the south-west region of Western Australia. Aust Vet J. 2022; 100: 205-212.
Sagartz JW, Hardenbrook HJ (1971). A clinical, bacteriologic and histologic survey of infertile cows. J Amer Vet Med Assoc 1971; 158: 619-622.
Wagener K, Grunert T, Prunner I, Ehling-Schulz M, Drillich M (2014) Dynamics of uterine infections with Escherichia coli, Streptococcus uberis, Trueperella pyogenes in post-partum dairy cows and their association with clinical endometritis. The Veterinary Journal 2014; 202: 527-532
Coxiella burnetii
De Biase et al (2018) studied Coxiella burnetii in the uterus of infertile cattle. 40 cows were selected because of repete breeding. 10 out of the 40 were PCR positive for Coxiella burnetii. Histological assessment of endometrial biopsies identified inflammation with macrophages, and lymphocytes and plasma cells. There was periglandular fibrosis. There was surface erosion and a layer of fibrin on the surface. Vasculitis and perivasculitis was also present. No cause and effect could be determined though.
De Biase D, Costagliola A, Del Piero F, Di Palo R, Coronati D, Galiero G, Uberti BD, Lucibelli MG, Fabbiano A, Davoust B, Raoult D, Paciello O. Coxiella burnetii in Infertile Dairy Cattle With Chronic Endometritis. Vet Pathol. 2018; 55: 539-542.
BoHV-4 is an unusual herpesvirus and different to the other bovine herpesviruses. What it belongs to the Herpesviridae family, subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae and is the genus Rhadinovirus.
Infection of epithelial cells of the mucosa result in primary multiplication and the virus disseminates in lymphocytes within the blood. It has tropism for endometrial epithelial and endothelial cells. It infects the uterus, mammary gland and multiple other organs. It will also cross the placenta and infect the fetus. It then becomes latent within lymphocytes and macrophages. Rarely will it become latent in the trigeminal ganglia.
While endometrial tissues containing this virus, including those with endometritis, it is doubtful whether it is a primary agent. It is generally believed bovine herpesvirus 4 coinfects with bacteria or fungi in the endometrium. Treatment of cows with metritis and infected with BoHV-4 with antibiotics and prostaglandin was effective.
Scenzi et al (2016) found that cows with purulent vaginal discharge were commonly infected with Histophilis somni and BoHV-4. They had a delayed period before they became pregnant again.
Klamminger et al (2017) published a study of the effect of BoHV-4 and subsequent fertility. It appeared to have increase time to pregnancy and the risk of infection with Trueperella pyogenes and vice versa. T pyogenes and BoHV are closely interrelated in their effect.
Klamminger S, Prunner I, Giuliodori MJ, Drillich M. Uterine infection with bovine herpesvirus type 4 in dairy cows. Reprod Domest Anim. 2017; 52: 115-121.
Campos FS, Franco AC, Oliveira MT, Firpo R, Strelczuk G, Fontoura FE, Kulmann MI, Maidana S, Romera SA, Spilki FR, Silva AD, Hübner SO, Roehe PM. (2014) Detection of bovine herpesvirus 2 and bovine herpesvirus 4 DNA in trigeminal ganglia of naturally infected cattle by polymerase chain reaction. Vet Microbiol2014; 171: 182-188.
Chastant-Maillard S. (2013) Impact of Bovine Herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4) on Reproduction. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2013
Fábián K1, Makrai L, Sachse K, Szeredi L, Egyed L (2008) .An investigation of the aetiological role of bovine herpesvirus 4 in bovine endometritis. Vet J 2008; 177: 289-292.
Nak Y, Dagalp SB, Cetin C, Nak D, Alkan F, Borum E, Tuna B (2010) Course and Severity of Postpartum Metritis Cases Following Antibiotic and PGF2 Administration in Postpartum Metritis Cows Infected with BoHV-4 Transbound Emerg Dis 2010 58: 31–36)
Szenci O, Sassi G, Fodor L, Molnár L, Szelényi Z, Tibold J, Mádl I, Egyed L. Co-infection with Bovine Herpesvirus 4 and Histophilus somni Significantly Extends the Service Period in Dairy Cattle with Purulent Vaginal Discharge. Reprod Domest Anim. 2016; 51: 143-149.
The retention of fetal membranes is a major problem the dairy industry, in particular. Approximately 5% of dairy cows develop retained fetal membranes. There are various definitions of this syndrome and all share the failure to deliver the placenta at the appropriate time. Some define this as retention for longer than 6 hours, others 12 hours after calving, and others within 24 hours of calving.
The exact cause is not known. It is acknowledged that there is a normal placental maturation approaching parturition and a failure of this maturation means the placenta is retained.Predisposing conditions include caesarean section, early or induced parturition, dystocia, twinning, uterine and inertia, free radical injury, inflammation, hormonal imbalance and immunosuppression.
Collagenase seems to be important in placental release as injecting collagenase into the umbilical arteries of uteri with retained placentas enhances placental release.
From a molecular point of view and based on mRNA expression there are 3 stages in placental release: apoptosis, degradation of extracellular matrix and innate immune response. (Streyl et al 2012).
There is evidence that MHC-1 compatability plays a role in retained fetal membranes (Benedictus et al 2012).
Wawrzykowski et al 2019 studied lectin and protein binding of the placenta and endometrium and found differences between retained and normal placentas.
Cows that spend more time lying prior to parturition are more likely to have retention of placental membranes.
Amin and Hussein (2022) reviewed the risk factors of RFM. They include:
- Blood metabolites and minerals including acute phase proteins (calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, serum urea, cytokines, and lipid metabolites).
- Metabolomics including biomarkers of inflammation (amino acids, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism)
The predisposing causes include immunosuppression and metabolic 'stress' and cortisol release.
Risk factors include dystocia, abortion and caesarean section, infectious agents, nutritional deficience, and BVDv.
Amin YA, Hussein HA. Latest update on predictive indicators, risk factors and 'Omic' technologies research of retained placenta in dairy cattle - A review. Reprod Domest Anim. 2022; 57: 687-700.
Beagley JC, Whitman KJ, Baptiste KE, Scherzer J. Physiology and Treatment of Retained Fetal Membranes in Cattle J Vet Intern Med 2010; 24: 261-268.
Benedictus L, Thomas AJ, Jorritsma R, Davies CJ, Koets AP. Two-way calf to dam major histocompatibility class I compatibility increases risk for retained placenta in cattle. Am J Reprod Immunol 2012; 67: 224–230
Cattaneo L, Lopreiato V, Trevisi E, Minuti A. Association of postpartum uterine diseases with lying time and metabolic profiles of multiparous Holstein dairy cows in the transition period. The Vet J 2020; 263:
Streyl D, Kenngott R, Herbach N, Wanke R, Blum H, Sinowatz F, Wolf Holm Zerbe E, Bauersachs S. Gene expression profiling of bovine peripartal placentomes: detection of molecular pathways potentially involved in the release of foetal membranes. Reproduction 2012; 143: 85-105.
McNaughton AP1, Murray RD. (2009) Structure and function of the bovine fetomaternal unit in relation to the causes of retained fetal membranes. Vet Rec 2009; 165(21): 615-622.Wawrzykowski J, Franczyk M, Kankofer M. Patterns of protein glycosylation in bovine placentomes as a function of gestational age and in retained versus non-retained placenta. Reprod Domest Anim. 2019; 54: 1384-1392.
Endometrial adenocarcinomas are commonly reported in some abbatoir studies but not others. In Great Britain, none were found in 1.3 million slaughtered cattle. In the USA, A survey of 202.9 Million cattle there were 116 cases of endometrial adenocarcinoma. It was considered the most important metastatic carcinoma of cattle. Metastases are usually to the lungs.
Migaki et al (1970) reported on 192 cases from slaughterhouse specimens. The lesion in the uterus is generally small and within one horn. Lesions up to 10 cm are reported. They are hard, white or tan, and may have a mineralised center. The endometrial surface is often not changed. Metastasis is to draining lymph nodes, throughout the peritoneum and or systemically. The lesions in the lungs are multifocal, and generalised and up to 5 cm in diameter and hard white to tan and mineralised in some cases. Histologically, the lesions are mostly within the myometrium.
Anderson LJ, Sandison AT. Tumours of the female genitalia in cattle, sheep and pigs found in a British abattoir survey. J Comp Pathol. 1969; 79: 53-63.
Cotchin E. Spontaneous uterine cancer in animals. Br J Cancer. 1964; 18: 209-227.
Elsinghorst TA, Timmermans HJ, Hendriks HG. Comparative pathology of endometrial carcinoma. Vet Q. 1984; 6: 200-208.
Lingard DR, Dickinson EO. Uterine adenocarcinoma with metastasis in the cow. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1966; 148: 913-915.
Migaki G, Carey AM, Turnquest RU, Garner FM. Pathology of bovine uterine adenocarcinoma. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1970; 157: 1577-1584.
Monlux AW, Anderson WA, Davis CL, Monlux WS. Adenocarcinoma of the uterus of the cow; differentiation of its pulmonary metastases from primary lung tumors. Am J Vet Res. 1956; 17: 45-73.
Involvement of the myometrium with bovine lymphoma as part of the disease spectrum of enzootic bovine leukosis because of infection with Bovine leukemia virus (Realm: Riboviria, Kingdom: Pararnavirae, Phylum: Artverviricota, Class: Revtraviricetes, Order: Ortervirales, Family: Retroviridae, Genus: Deltaretrovirus, Species: Bovine leukemia virus). The uterus, abomasum and myocardium are often affected simultaneously. In the structures, the proliferating B cell lymphocytes infiltrate throughout the myometrium and result in marked thickening of the organ. Both the pregnant and nonpregnant uterus are affected. The area affected with this lymphoma can be much greater than the area of the smooth muscle of the muscular tunic.
The vast majority of cases are B-cell lymphomas. There are some reports of non-B and non-T cell lymphomas of the Gamma Delta type. They are mostly of the diffuse large cell, high grade type.
Burton AJ, Nydam DV, Long ED, Divers TJ. Signalment and clinical complaints initiating hospital admission, methods of diagnosis, and pathological findings associated with bovine lymphosarcoma (112 cases). J Vet Intern Med. 2010; 24: 960-964.
Chiba T, Hiraga M, Aida Y, Ajito T, Asahina M, Wu D, Ohshima K, Davis WC, Okada K. Immunohistologic studies on subpopulations of lymphocytes in cattle with enzootic bovine leukosis. Vet Pathol. 1995; 32: 513-520.
Tanaka H, Takai H, Sato K, Ishikawa Y, Shibahara T, Kadota K. Nodal, uterine and meningeal gamma(delta) T-cell lymphomas in cattle. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med. 2003; 50: 447-451.
Vernau W, Valli VE, Dukes TW, Jacobs RM, Shoukri M, Heeney JL. Classification of 1,198 cases of bovine lymphoma using the National Cancer Institute Working Formulation for human non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. Vet Pathol. 1992; 29: 183-195.
Gestational trophoblastic diseases are divided into those that are not neoplastic in those that are neoplastic. The nonneoplastic conditions include placental (hydadiform) mole and partial mole
Placental mole (molar pregnancy)
There are multiple single reports of placental moles in cattle. They are almost exclusively in twin pregnancies.
Meinecke et al (2002) Reported a single case where, in a twin pregnancy, there was a mole and a male co-twin. The male cotwin had XY , XX and X_ chromosomes. Both had an X_ sex chromosome type, the molar tissue had an XX sex chromosome type. No histology was done and the gross description was minimal.
Linhares Boakari et al (2020) Reported on an entry uterine cystic mass with features of placenta including trophoblastic cells and allantoic and amniotic components. No fetal tissue was identified.
Linhares Boakari Y, Cofield L, Waqas S, Stockler J, Pope J, Waters K, Gard J. A molar pregnancy in an embryo donor cow. Reprod Domest Anim. 2020; 55: 1646-1649
Meinecke B, Kuiper H, Drögemüller C, Leeb T, Meinecke-Tillmann S. A mola hydatidosa coexistent with a foetus in a bovine freemartin pregnancy. Placenta. 2003; 24: 107-112.